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Fabric Guide

Your Evidence-Based Guide to Truly Organic Cotton, Polyester Safety, Bamboo vs Eucalyptus Fabrics, C0 DWR Coatings, Azo Dyes, and More

By Dr. Meg Christensen

Dr. Meg Christensen is the founder of Interior Medicine, a physician-created resource on non-toxic home products and household exposures. Her layer-by-layer analysis of materials and products draws on her background in medicine, biochemistry, epidemiology, and clinical research.

Published March 2021   |    Updated May 2026

What This Guide Covers

Table of Contents

Hazard Lists & Third-Party Certifications for Fabric

Synthetic and Semi-Synthetic Fabrics Explained

Chemicals in Fabric Processing

New Fabric Technologies and Safety Concerns

How and why I use the words non-toxic, chemical-free, toxin, and toxic

Fabric Rating Scale

This scale is a summary of all the information that follows it below. Scales keep me consistent and unbiased as I rate and rank products for their potential impact on your health, and they’re meant to organize the information in a straightforward way for you, too.

This scale captures a complete picture of fabric's potential impact on your health by considering two things: both what the starting material was, and how it was processed. Keep reading for the full breakdown on the reasoning behind it, and how to make smart decisions about upholstery, curtains, sheets, and blankets in your home.

Fabric Rating Scale

TIER 01

Healthiest

Description

Certified organic natural fibers

  • GOTS-certified natural fibers (cotton, linen, hemp, wool, silk), with GOTS verifying both the organic fiber and the full processing chain (dyes, additives, finishes) against a banned-substance list

Look for

  • GOTS label grade ("organic" or "made with organic") on the product or packaging, with a license number verifiable in the GOTS public database

Ask the brand

  • Can you share the GOTS certification number?
  • When does the certificate expire?

In practice

  • Most common in bedding, baby textiles, and organic high-end mattresses
  • Watch for "made with GOTS-certified cotton," which verifies the cotton input but not the dyes, additives, or finishes applied afterward

TIER 02

Healthy

Description

Natural fibers with whole-product safety certification

  • Natural fibers (cotton, linen, hemp, wool, silk) with OEKO-TEX Standard 100 Class I or II certification on the finished product, testing for residual formaldehyde, banned azo dyes, heavy metals, pesticide residues, and a growing list of PFAS

Look for

  • OEKO-TEX Standard 100 logo

Ask the brand

  • Is the certification for the finished product or just the yarn?
  • Class I (baby) or Class II (direct skin contact)?
  • Do you use GOTS-certified materials without carrying the GOTS certificate yourselves?

In practice

  • Common for premium bedding brands that test finished products but haven't pursued the more costly GOTS certification, or that use natural fibers grown without pesticides but not certified organic (common for linen and hemp)
  • Some small brands source GOTS-certified materials without carrying the certificate themselves due to cost, which leaves the trust call to you
  • Look up the class in the OEKO-TEX database if the brand doesn't disclose it

TIER 03

OK

Description

Uncertified natural fibers, or certified synthetic and semi-synthetic fibers

  • Uncertified natural fibers (cotton, linen, hemp, wool, silk) with brand stating no finishes added
  • Synthetic and semi-synthetic fibers (polyester, nylon, lyocell, viscose) with OEKO-TEX Standard 100 or MADE SAFE certification on the finished product

You'll see

  • "100% cotton/linen/hemp/wool/silk" with no certifications
  • OEKO-TEX Standard 100 or MADE SAFE logo on synthetic, semi-synthetic, or recycled fibers

Ask the brand

  • Are any finishes applied (wrinkle-resist, stain-repellent, antimicrobial, flame retardant, water-repellent)?
  • For wool, any mothproofing or shrink-resist treatment?

In practice

  • A common landing spot
  • Uncertified natural fibers carry typical industry residues that aren't tested for
  • Certified synthetics have verified lower residue limits and shed microplastics during use, but are safer than standard
  • MADE SAFE screens against a banned-substance list without publishing residue limit values, which makes it less verifiable than OEKO-TEX on the residue side

TIER 04

Use Caution

Description

Uncertified synthetic or semi-synthetic fibers

  • Uncertified petroleum-based synthetics (polyester, nylon, acrylic, polypropylene, olefin, fabric made from recycled water bottles)
  • Uncertified semi-synthetics (viscose, bamboo viscose, modal)

You'll see

  • "Polyester," "nylon," "acrylic," "olefin," "polypropylene," "rayon," "viscose," "bamboo viscose," "modal" without OEKO-TEX or any third-party certification

Ask the brand

  • Is the fabric treated for stain, water, antimicrobial, or flame retardancy?
  • Any wrinkle-free or easy-care finish? A yes to any of these drops it to Tier 5.

In practice

  • The industry default for affordable bedding, upholstery, and curtains

TIER 05

Harmful

Description

Fabrics containing known harmful chemistry

  • PVC and vinyl fabrics (shower curtains, vinyl-coated upholstery, faux leather not labeled polyurethane)
  • Natural or synthetic fabrics treated with PFAS (stain-resistant, water-repellent), flame retardants, antimicrobials (quats, triclosan), or formaldehyde-releasing wrinkle-free resins

You'll see

  • "PVC," "vinyl," "faux leather" without more ingredient disclosure
  • "Stain-resistant," "water-repellent," pre-2026 Scotchgard lines
  • "Flame retardant," "FR-treated"
  • "Antimicrobial," "odor-resistant"
  • "Wrinkle-free," "no-iron," "easy care," "permanent press"
  • "PFOA-free" or "PFOS-free" framed as proof of safety

Ask the brand

  • Are any PFAS used?
  • Any flame retardants, and which class?
  • Any antimicrobial finish or formaldehyde-releasing resin?

In practice

  • Mostly found in performance upholstery, outdoor fabrics, shower curtains, stain-treated bedding, and no-iron sheets
  • Treatments are bonded into the fiber and don't off-gas away

HAZARD

Decoder

Prop 65

A Prop 65 warning on a fabric product means the brand either knows a listed substance is present above a regulatory limit, or is labeling as a legal precaution. It measures whether your potential exposure meets a certain limit. Each chemical can look alarming on first glance, but there's more nuance to whether you need to worry. Read below to see what each chemical actually means and what to do about it.

The most common possibilities for a Prop 65 warning on fabric are:

  • Formaldehyde: wrinkle-free, no-iron, easy-care finishes on cotton and blends.
  • Carbon disulfide: residue from viscose, rayon, and modal manufacturing.
  • Acrylonitrile: residual monomer in acrylic fibers used in upholstery, throws, blankets, and faux fur.
  • PFOA, PFOS, PFNA: stain-resistant, water-repellent, performance fabric treatments.
  • Phthalates (DEHP, DBP, BBP, DINP, DIDP): PVC fabrics, vinyl-coated upholstery, faux leather, and the rubbery raised prints on graphic pillows and kids' bedding.
  • Antimony trioxide: flame retardant finishes, often paired with brominated FRs.
  • Banned azo dyes: certain dyes that release carcinogenic amines like benzidine and o-toluidine, found in some colored fabrics.
  • Lead: uncommon in regulated fabric, more common in unregulated imports and budget home goods. Some red, yellow, or orange dye pigments.

Prop 65 Fabric

What should I do about a Prop 65 warning on fabric?

Unlike some material categories, when you see a Prop 65 sticker on fabric, it’s almost always a sign worth paying attention to. Companies will essentially never tell you exactly which chemical is present in their product to warrant a Prop 65 label, but your response can be the same no matter what: don’t buy it and choose one without a Prop 65, or reduce exposure. Wash before using fabrics if they’re something you can throw in the washing machine. Or, if it’s part of a bigger piece of furniture, use wet-dusting, HEPA vacuuming, and mopping to reduce exposure.

Worth your attention. These chemicals bond into the fiber during manufacturing and migrate out over the life of the product, sped up by friction, heat, sweat, and time. They show up most in stain-resistant and water-repellent fabrics, PVC and vinyl-coated fabrics, flame-retardant-treated upholstery, and wrinkle-free or no-iron finishes.

  • PFAS: A class of long-lasting chemicals linked to kidney and testicular cancer, thyroid disease, immune suppression, and developmental effects. Don't break down in the environment or the body. In fabric, found in stain-resistant, water-repellent, and performance treatments under many brand names. PFAS migrate into household dust and onto skin over the life of the product rather than off-gassing, so ventilation does little. Wet-dusting, HEPA vacuuming, and laundering removable textiles reduce dust exposure, but for treated upholstery and curtains the treatment is bonded in and persists. The better move is to choose an untreated or certified-untreated fabric.

  • Phthalates (DEHP, DBP, BBP, DINP, DIDP): Reproductive and developmental toxicants and probable human carcinogens, with effects on the male reproductive system shown across animal studies and human bio-monitoring. Used as plasticizers in PVC fabrics, vinyl-coated upholstery, faux leather (when not labeled polyurethane), and the rubbery raised prints on graphic pillows and kids' bedding. Migrate into dust and onto skin rather than into the air. Wet-dusting and HEPA vacuuming help, but for large-surface items like vinyl shower curtains, faux leather couches, and kids' textiles with plastisol prints, the better move is to choose a different material.

  • Antimony trioxide: A possible human carcinogen by inhalation, linked to respiratory effects in occupational exposure studies. Used as a flame retardant synergist, often paired with brominated FRs, in performance and contract upholstery. Migrates into dust rather than off-gassing. For treated upholstery you already own, regular damp dusting and HEPA vacuuming help. For new purchases, ask whether the fabric is flame-retardant-treated and consider an untreated alternative.

  • Banned azo dyes: Certain dyes that release carcinogenic aromatic amines like benzidine and o-toluidine when they break down. Found in some colored fabrics, more often in unregulated imports. The breakdown products migrate onto skin with sweat and friction. OEKO-TEX Standard 100 certification tests for and excludes these dyes, which makes certification the most reliable filter when the warning is dye-related.

  • Formaldehyde: A known human carcinogen linked to nasopharyngeal cancer and leukemia, and a respiratory irritant that can trigger asthma. Used in wrinkle-free, no-iron, easy-care, and permanent-press finishes on cotton and blends. Off-gases into the air and rinses out of the fabric with washing. Washing new bedding and clothing in hot water (one or two cycles) before use removes most surface-available formaldehyde. Airing out new upholstery and curtains in a ventilated space before installing reduces inhalation exposure.

  • Carbon disulfide: A neurotoxin and reproductive toxicant. Residue from viscose, rayon, and modal manufacturing, which uses carbon disulfide as a solvent to dissolve cellulose. Most off-gasses during manufacturing and shipping; residuals on the finished fabric decrease with airing out and laundering.

  • Acrylonitrile: A probable human carcinogen and respiratory irritant. Residual monomer in acrylic fibers used in upholstery, throws, blankets, and faux fur, meaning a trace amount of the starting material that didn't fully react during manufacturing. Off-gassing is highest when the product is new and decreases over the first weeks to months. Airing out new acrylic textiles in a ventilated space helps, and washing removable items before use removes surface residuals.

  • Lead: A potent neurotoxin with no safe exposure threshold in children. Causes cognitive deficits, behavioral problems, and developmental delays, with effects measurable at blood levels once considered acceptable. Uncommon in regulated fabric, more common in unregulated imports and budget home goods, sometimes in red, yellow, or orange dye pigments. Worth avoiding outright, particularly for children's textiles and items used in sleep environments.

In short: for PFAS-treated, PVC, flame-retardant-treated, and lead- or banned-dye-containing fabrics, the warning is about chemicals that don't go away with washing or time as readily, so the best move is to choose a different product if possible. For formaldehyde finishes on cotton and trace residuals in viscose, rayon, modal, and acrylic, washing and airing out meaningfully reduce exposure.

What does a Prop 65 warning on fabric mean?

A Prop 65 warning means the product contains, or might contain, a substance on California's list of chemicals known to cause cancer or reproductive harm. It does not necessarily mean the product is dangerous to use. That's because Prop 65 is a right-to-know law, not a product safety law. It requires warnings at levels 1,000 times below the level that could cause harm.

There are three reasons a brand might put a Prop 65 sticker on a fabric product:

  1. The first is liability. Prop 65 enforcement runs primarily through private lawsuits, and the penalties for failing to warn can be steep. Many brands apply the sticker preemptively, even when they aren't certain a listed chemical is present at exposure-triggering levels, because labeling is cheaper than litigating. This is why the sticker isn't a reliable signal of high exposure.

  2. The second is actual presence. The fabric contains a known Prop 65 listed chemical at levels the brand has tested for and confirmed exceed the threshold. Phthalates in PVC fabrics and vinyl-coated upholstery is a common version of this. PFAS in stain-resistant treatments is another.

  3. The third is component-level uncertainty in a multi-material product. A piece of furniture might carry a Prop 65 sticker because of the foam or the wood frame, not because of anything in the fabric itself. An upholstered couch might carry one because of the flame retardant in the barrier fabric rather than the visible cover fabric. Brands often can't or don't separate which component triggered the warning, which makes the sticker harder to interpret on a multi-material product than on a single-material textile like a sheet or curtain.

The result is that a Prop 65 sticker on a fabric product tells you something is possibly present, not that something definitely is, not which component it's in, and not which something it is.

Understanding Fabric Certifications

What are third-party fabric certifications? Why are they important?

Third-party certification means that an independent group that didn't make the product has reviewed, tested, and verified the claims that the company making the product has made. For fabrics, a third party may test the product for all ingredients used throughout the entire process (like GOTS), or just for dangerous chemicals in the finished product (like OEKO-TEX).

Third-party certifications protect you from healthwashing and greenwashing. Just like greenwashing makes products appear better for the Earth than they really are, some companies intentionally make their products seem healthier for people than they really are, too.

Because the fabric processing industry is so chemically intensive, and because there is so much health (and green) -washing in it, there are multiple third-party certification groups addressing the problem. Unlike for some of the other materials I rate on this website, I don't have to start from scratch when it comes to fabric safety, so I rely on these well-respected certifications heavily.

What does GOTS certified mean?

GOTS is short for the Global Organic Textile Standard.

It is the gold standard third-party certification for organic fabrics made from natural fibers like wool, cotton, linen, and hemp.

Fabric with the GOTS-certified organic label means that at least 95% of the starting fibers are certified organic, and ensures that the fabric remains healthy throughout the entire manufacturing process. This means the dyes and other chemicals used are safer for human and ecological health than standard fabric processing methods. No harmful finishes may be added to the final product.

GOTS certification covers everything from fiber farming to dyeing to finishing, making it the most comprehensive organic fabric certification available. This is especially important for bedding—sheets, pillowcases, and duvet covers you sleep on for 8+ hours every night. Shop GOTS-certified organic bedding.

What's the difference between "GOTS organic" and "GOTS made with organic"?

GOTS has two label grades. "Organic" means the finished textile contains at least 95% certified organic fibers. "Made with organic" means at least 70% organic fibers, with the remaining 30% restricted to a list of approved non-organic or recycled materials. Both grades require the full GOTS processing chain (dyes, additives, finishes, wastewater management, social audits) to be in place.

For my rating scale, both grades count as Tier 1. The processing standards are what protect you from chemicals on the finished fabric, and those are equivalent across both label grades. The organic content threshold matters more for agricultural and supply-chain reasons than for end-product chemistry.

A separate trap to watch for: "made with GOTS-certified cotton" is not the same as a GOTS label grade. That phrasing means the cotton input was GOTS-certified at the fiber level, but the rest of the processing chain (spinning, weaving, dyeing, finishing, assembly) may or may not have been. Without one of the two GOTS label grades on the finished product, you can't assume the processing chain was verified.

What is OCS certified?

OCS stands for the Organic Content Standard. It is a third-party certification by the Textile Exchange that is related to the Responsible Down Standard and the Global Recycled Standard. It has two levels: OCS100 means the fiber is at least 95% certified organic, and OCS Blended means that at least 5% of the material is. Like USDA organic, it's useful for certifying that the fibers themselves are grown organically in agriculture, but it doesn't address the chemical processing afterward. Unlike USDA Organic certification, it is focused on textile products and other consumer goods, rather than food.

If you get something made with OCS certification, make sure it's also OEKO-TEX certified, ensuring that the chemicals used in processing are minimal and safe for humans.

What is BCI cotton? Is Better Cotton Initiative safe?

Short for Better Cotton Initiative, BCI cotton is slightly better than conventionally processed cotton. The most toxic fertilizers and pesticides used to grow the fiber are banned, though not all of them. It is also theoretically better for workers and their wages, but it does not cover processing chemicals or what is left in the final product, like GOTS or OEKO-TEX does. This is an interesting deep dive into it. I consider it standard processed cotton.

Is USDA organic fabric safe? Is USDA organic cotton non-toxic?

No. USDA Organic applies to how the crop is grown, but not to what happens afterward. While fabric grown without pesticides is certainly a good thing, USDA organic cotton can easily have chemicals added to it during the manufacturing process. This certification applies better to food than to textiles.

For truly non-toxic organic fabric, look for GOTS certification, which covers both organic farming and safe processing.

What is OEKO-TEX certification?

OEKO-TEX certification applies to the finished product only, and is for both natural and synthetic textiles. Organic fibers, as well as man-made fabrics like polyester can both qualify, depending on what chemicals, and how much of them, are left in the final product. It does allow for some harmful chemicals, but in much lower quantities than are used in standard textile processing. You can see their limits, which are updated annually, here.

OEKO-TEX tests for over 1,000 harmful substances, including pesticides, formaldehyde, heavy metals, phthalates, and flame retardants in finished fabric products. This makes it essential for items like curtains and window treatments that may otherwise contain flame retardants, or pillows where you're breathing near the fabric all night.

What is OEKO-TEX Class I?

OEKO-TEX has four product classes: I, II, III, and IV. Class I products have met the strictest requirements and limits, and are certified to be safe for babies and toddlers to touch. Babies and toddlers are more vulnerable to harmful exposures because their detoxification systems aren't fully developed, they engage in hand-to-mouth behavior more often, and their cells are dividing rapidly as they grow, meaning they are more susceptible to mutagenic exposures.

Class II means direct skin contact is safe for adults, and applies to textiles like sheets and pillowcases. Class III and IV are still much safer for you than standard fabric processing—I really want to emphasize that!—and are reserved for items without direct skin contact, decorations, and home textiles you don't touch very often (like curtains, for example).

What is MADE SAFE certified?

MADE SAFE is a third-party certification with a banned and restricted list of around 15,000 substances drawn from European Union standards, the Red List, and other international hazard databases. It covers fabrics along with many other consumer product categories including cleaning products, personal care, baby gear, and home goods. The first comparison people want to make is to OEKO-TEX (1,000 substances) but the two certifications are doing different work. MADE SAFE's list spans many product categories that each carry their own pool of hazardous ingredients, while OEKO-TEX is textile-focused. The numbers aren't a direct comparison.

The bigger distinction is methodology. OEKO-TEX and GOTS publish their criteria documents with specific residue limit values, updated annually, that finished products are tested against. MADE SAFE uses a hazard-based screening approach: substances are on the banned list or they aren't, and the certifier evaluates whether ingredients pass under the precautionary principle. (Learn about the difference between hazard and an actual risk to your health in my guide here and about the precautionary principle in later sections of the same guide.) MADE SAFE acknowledges that "some substances may have category specific allowances or technically unavoidable content, in which case either additional testing or threshold requirements may apply," but those limit values and allowances aren't published the way OEKO-TEX publishes its limits.

For my rating scale, that transparency gap is why MADE SAFE sits one tier below OEKO-TEX even for synthetic fabrics. The methodology is meaningful and the substances on the list are real, but for a residue question (what's left on the fabric that touches your skin), I'd rather see published limit values I can look up. I still consider a MADE SAFE certified product safer than an uncertified one, and the certification is doing real work, particularly across product categories that don't have textile-specific certifications. For fabric specifically, I prioritize OEKO-TEX.

What is GRS certified?

GRS stands for Global Recycled Standard and is a third-party certification set by the Textile Exchange. This is important because polyester that comes from recycled plastic water bottles can have a lot of added processing chemicals. The GRS helps ensure that chemicals with harmful potential aren't allowed to be used.

GRS certification is essential for recycled polyester fabric to confirm it's been processed safely and doesn't contain harmful additives.

GOTS vs OEKO-TEX: What's the difference? Which is better?

GOTS organic means a higher standard of health than OEKO-TEX, because it requires that organic and safe ingredients are used throughout the entire process, from growing the fiber to dyeing it, to finishing and selling it.

OEKO-TEX certification applies to the finished product only, and applies to both natural and synthetic textiles. Organic fibers, as well as man-made fabrics like polyester can both qualify, depending on what chemicals, and how much of them, are left in the final product. It does allow for some harmful chemicals, but in much lower quantities than are used in standard textile processing. You can see their limits, which are updated annually, here.

For the safest natural fiber fabric, choose GOTS. For safe synthetic fabrics or when GOTS isn't available, OEKO-TEX is an excellent alternative.

How much does GOTS or OEKO-TEX certification cost a brand? Why does it matter to me?

It costs more to be GOTS certified than OEKO-TEX certified, and that gap explains a lot about what you see in the marketplace. GOTS requires organic fiber certification at the farm level, chain-of-custody documentation through every processing stage (spinning, weaving, dyeing, sewing), annual social audits, and wastewater management protocols. It's an infrastructure cost that recurs every year and at every facility in the supply chain. OEKO-TEX Standard 100, in contrast, primarily tests finished products in a lab against published chemical limits. The brand sends samples, they get tested, and certification follows.

Exact costs vary by company size and product line, but as a rough sense of the gap, OEKO-TEX certification can run a few thousand dollars per product class annually, while GOTS certification across a full supply chain can run tens of thousands to six figures depending on the operation. For a small brand, that's the difference between feasible and not.

This is why some small brands source GOTS-certified fibers or fabrics but don't carry GOTS certification themselves. They're working within a verified upstream supply chain and adding only minimal processing of their own, so they don't see the value in (or can't afford) the chain-of-custody overhead for their own operation. The trust call is yours. A small bedding brand that openly says they use GOTS-certified cotton from a verified supplier and don't add finishes is in a different position than a large brand making the same claim without traceability. If a brand discloses their suppliers and their reasons, I consider them trustworthy at roughly Tier 2 on my scale.

GOTS vs OCS: What's the difference?

GOTS is a higher standard of health than OCS because it requires safe processing throughout the entire manufacturing chain. OCS is still a good thing, but has slightly different primary goals—namely, increasing organic agriculture.

OCS certifies organic fiber content but doesn't regulate what chemicals are used during fabric processing. GOTS covers both organic content and safe processing.

MADE SAFE vs OEKO-TEX: Which should I choose?

For fabric, OEKO-TEX. The certifications use different methodologies (see above), and for the question of what residue remains on a finished textile, OEKO-TEX's published limit-value testing is more directly answerable than MADE SAFE's hazard-based screening. (Learn about the difference between hazard and an actual risk to your health in my guide here.) Both are real third-party verifications and both are better than nothing, but for a fabric that touches your skin, OEKO-TEX gives me information I can verify in a published criteria document.

MADE SAFE has its own place in the broader non-toxic certification landscape. It covers many product categories that OEKO-TEX doesn't, particularly cleaning products, personal care, and baby gear, where a residue-testing model would be harder to apply. For those categories, MADE SAFE is one of the strongest certifications available. MADE SAFE’s list is here, and OEKO TEX’s list is here.

Wool, Silk, and How They’re Processed

What is superwash wool? Is it safe?

Wool fibers have microscopic scales along their surface that interlock when wet, which is why untreated wool felts and shrinks in the washing machine. Superwash wool is wool that has been treated to flatten or coat over those scales so it survives a regular wash cycle without felting. The standard industrial process is called chlorine-Hercosett, and it has two steps. First, the wool is chlorinated to dissolve the surface scales. Second, the fiber is coated with a polyamide-epichlorohydrin polymer (sold under the brand name Hercosett 125) that seals the smoothed surface in place.

What's left on the finished fabric is a thin polymer coating over each fiber, along with trace adsorbable organic halogens (AOX) and chlorinated organic residues from the chlorination step. OEKO-TEX Standard 100 tests for AOX and chlorinated compounds in its criteria, which means an OEKO-TEX-certified superwash wool has those residues caught at limit values. The polymer coating itself is generally considered low-toxicity once cured, but it does mean superwash wool is partially coated in a synthetic film rather than being pure wool.

If "machine washable wool" or "superwash" matters to you for practical reasons, look for OEKO-TEX certification on the finished product. If you're choosing wool specifically for its natural and unprocessed character, look for untreated wool, hand-wash-only labels, or GOTS-certified wool, which limits synthetic finishes.

What other treatments are commonly applied to wool?

A few are common enough to know about.

Mothproofing is widely applied to wool products to prevent moth and carpet beetle damage. The main one is permethrin, a synthetic insecticide. Permethrin has documented neurotoxicity in cats and bees and at higher exposures in humans, though residues on finished textiles are typically low and OEKO-TEX limits them. GOTS limits mothproofing, and most natural wool brands go untreated.

For shrink-resist treatments and anti-pilling treatments, the chemistry is variable and asking the brand is helpful. OEKO-TEX limits the residue amounts.

Bleaching to whiten wool is typically done with hydrogen peroxide rather than chlorine bleach. This is a relatively clean process and not a significant concern.

The pattern for wool is similar to the pattern for cotton: the underlying fiber is fine, and the question is what was done to it during processing. OEKO-TEX certification handles most of these treatments by testing for residues on the finished product. GOTS handles them by limiting what's allowed in the first place.

Is silk safe? What kinds of silk are there?

Silk is a natural protein fiber produced by silkworms as they spin their cocoons. As a fiber it sits alongside cotton, linen, hemp, and wool on my scale, and a GOTS-certified or OEKO-TEX-certified silk sheet or pillowcase is among the healthier textile options available. The questions about silk come up around how it's harvested and processed.

Conventional silk is the industry default. The cocoon is boiled or steamed with the silkworm inside, which kills the worm and allows the silk to be unwound as a continuous filament. This is what most silk sheets on the market are.

Peace silk, sometimes called Ahimsa silk, allows the moth to emerge from the cocoon naturally before the silk is harvested, which produces shorter filaments that have to be spun. The fiber tends to be slightly less smooth and luxurious in feel, and the process is more labor-intensive, so peace silk is more expensive. The end-product chemistry is the same as conventional silk.

Weighted silk is silk treated with metal salts (historically tin chloride, more recently other metals) to add density and drape. The treatment increases the weight of the finished fabric, which lets brands sell less actual silk fiber as a heavier product. From a health perspective, weighted silk carries residual heavy metals on the fiber surface. It's much less common than it was in the early twentieth century, but if a silk product feels unusually heavy or stiff and isn't certified, it's worth asking. OEKO-TEX limits heavy metals and would flag this.

Sericin removal is the standard processing step that strips a gummy protein coating off raw silk to produce the smooth lustrous fiber most people recognize as silk. It uses soap, mild detergent, and warm water, and is not a significant chemistry concern.

For silk specifically, look for OEKO-TEX certification on the finished product. The fiber is fine and the residue testing catches the rare weighted-silk situation. If you want to support a less industrial harvest process, look for peace silk, recognizing that the finished fabric chemistry isn't different.

Synthetic and Semi-Synthetic Fabrics Explained

What is plant-based polymer fabric? What is bioplastic fabric?

Also known as bioplastics, plant-based plastic, or semi-synthetics, plant-based polymer fabrics are all made with plastic threads made from vegetables or trees. Small molecules from starchy foods, like corn, sugarcane, potatoes, or eucalyptus trees and other wood fibers, are extracted, then reacted in a factory with other chemicals to make polymers—the long chains of plastic that can be woven into fabrics, just like polyester or polypropylene.

What is PLA fabric?

PLA stands for polylactic acid, and is one of the most popular bioplastics available currently. It is derived from fermented plant starch like sugarcane or corn and turned into PLA, which is very similar to polyester, but made from plants instead of petroleum.

PLA fabric is considered a semi-synthetic, plant-based alternative to petroleum-based polyester.

Is PLA safe? Is PLA fabric toxic?

It depends on how it's processed and what is mixed in with it—A PLA with OEKO-TEX certification helps ensure it is safer for human health and that harmful chemicals haven't been added. Jump down to see more about how fabrics are processed.

What is viscose fabric?

Viscose is an example of a plant-based polymer fabric. It is made from cellulose that comes from wood pulp. The cellulose is extracted and is heavily processed with various chemicals, and can be energy and water-intensive. It's certainly better for people and the earth than a petroleum-based fabric, but still isn't as healthy as a truly natural fabric.

Viscose fabric falls into the semi-synthetic category—neither fully natural nor fully synthetic.

What is rayon fabric? What is lyocell? What is Tencel?

Rayon and lyocell are two different families of plant-based polymer fabric. They're often grouped together because both start with cellulose from plants and end as fibers spun into fabric, but the chemistry that connects the two is different enough that I want to separate them.

Rayon (most commonly sold as viscose rayon or just viscose) is made by dissolving plant cellulose in carbon disulfide and sodium hydroxide, then forcing the dissolved cellulose through small holes into a chemical bath to make a fiber. The process is open-loop, meaning the solvent isn't fully recovered and is discharged as waste. Carbon disulfide is a documented neurotoxin for the workers who handle it, and the process is energy and water-intensive. The cellulose can come from wood pulp, bamboo, soy, or cotton. Modal is a viscose variant, made by the same chemistry with slight modifications.

Lyocell is a separate fiber category. It's made by dissolving plant cellulose in N-methylmorpholine N-oxide (NMMO), a less-toxic solvent, in a closed-loop system that recovers and reuses around 99% of the solvent rather than discharging it. The same cellulose sources are possible, but eucalyptus is the main one used.

Tencel is simply a brand name for lyocell.

Both rayon/viscose and lyocell/Tencel can carry residues from processing, dyes, and finishes. OEKO-TEX or MADE SAFE certification on the finished product is what catches that, regardless of which process was used. The cleaner solvent chemistry of lyocell mostly matters upstream, for workers and watersheds, rather than for what ends up on your sheets.

Both types are more breathable and moisture-wicking than petroleum synthetics like polyester, which is part of why they show up so often in bedding. They're a reasonable middle option for shoppers who want something cooler than conventional cotton without going fully synthetic, and a certified lyocell or eucalyptus product sits in Tier 3 on my scale.

Is viscose toxic? Is rayon toxic? Is viscose safe?

They are both certainly better for people and the earth than a petroleum-based fabric, but their overall health will depend on how they are processed and if harmful chemicals are added in. Looking for MADE SAFE or OEKO-TEX certification can help ensure they are safer fabrics.

Without third-party certification, viscose and rayon may contain processing chemicals that are harmful to human health.

What is bamboo fabric? Is bamboo fabric safe?

The short answer is that "bamboo fabric" almost always means bamboo viscose, a chemically processed semi-synthetic, not the natural plant-based fabric the marketing implies. Bamboo as a plant grows fast and needs little pesticide input, so the agricultural story is meaningfully better than conventional cotton. But the fiber that ends up in your sheets is not the bamboo plant. It's bamboo cellulose that has been dissolved in carbon disulfide and sodium hydroxide, then spun back into fiber. The chemistry is the same as any other viscose rayon, regardless of the source plant.

There are three versions of bamboo fabric to know about.

Bamboo viscose (also sold as bamboo rayon) is the main type you see. The chemistry above applies. From a human health perspective, the residual solvents and finishing chemicals on the finished fabric are the question, which is why OEKO-TEX or MADE SAFE certification matters here. An uncertified bamboo viscose sheet sits in Tier 4 on my scale alongside other uncertified semi-synthetics.

Bamboo lyocell is bamboo cellulose processed in a closed-loop NMMO solvent system, the same process used for eucalyptus-based Tencel. It's much less common than bamboo viscose but exists. The closed-loop process recovers and reuses the solvent rather than discharging it, which makes it cleaner from a worker and environmental standpoint. The finished fabric still benefits from third-party certification on residues.

Bamboo linen is mechanically processed: the stalk is crushed, soaked in enzymes, and the remaining fibers are spun like flax linen. It's the cleanest version chemistry-wise and it’s rare. It feels more like linen than the silky bamboo viscose most people associate with the word "bamboo."

If a brand markets bamboo sheets without specifying which version, assume bamboo viscose. The FTC has cracked down on brands labeling bamboo viscose simply as "bamboo," but the practice persists.

What is eucalyptus fabric? Is eucalyptus the same as Tencel?

Eucalyptus fabric is almost always Tencel lyocell, a semi-synthetic fiber made from eucalyptus tree cellulose. Lyocell is the fiber category and Tencel is the Lenzing-owned brand name for the dominant commercial version. When you see "eucalyptus sheets" on the market, you're typically looking at Tencel.

The production process is what distinguishes lyocell from other semi-synthetics. The eucalyptus cellulose is dissolved in N-methylmorpholine N-oxide (NMMO), a non-toxic solvent, in a closed-loop system that recovers and reuses around 99% of the solvent rather than discharging it. This is meaningfully cleaner than the carbon disulfide chemistry of viscose rayon. From an end-product perspective the difference is more about worker and environmental exposure than about residues on the finished fabric, since the closed-loop process produces less solvent residue to begin with.

Eucalyptus as a plant has agricultural advantages similar to bamboo: it grows quickly, needs little irrigation, and can be cultivated on land unsuitable for food crops.

For human health specifically, look for OEKO-TEX certification on eucalyptus or Tencel sheets, which catches residual chemicals from spinning, dyeing, and finishing. The fiber itself is fine, and a certified Tencel sheet sits in Tier 3 on my scale alongside other certified semi-synthetics. It's a reasonable choice for people who want something cooler-feeling than cotton without going into synthetic territory.

Bamboo vs eucalyptus fabric: which is healthier?

For human health, the bigger factor isn't bamboo versus eucalyptus, it's how the cellulose was processed and whether the finished product is third-party certified. Eucalyptus is almost always processed via the closed-loop lyocell (Tencel) chemistry, which is cleaner than the viscose chemistry used for most bamboo. So in practice, "eucalyptus sheets" usually means lyocell and "bamboo sheets" usually means viscose, and lyocell is the cleaner of the two processes.

But the rule isn't airtight. Bamboo lyocell exists (rare), and eucalyptus viscose exists (also rare). The plant is not the process. If you're choosing between a bamboo product and a eucalyptus product, look at the processing claim first (lyocell, Tencel, or viscose), then look for OEKO-TEX or MADE SAFE certification on the finished product. With both signals in your favor, the difference between bamboo lyocell and eucalyptus lyocell on a health basis is negligible.

What's the difference between bamboo viscose and bamboo linen?

They sound similar and look similar in marketing copy, but the production chemistry is very different. Bamboo viscose (also sold as bamboo rayon) is made by dissolving bamboo cellulose in carbon disulfide and sodium hydroxide, then spinning the dissolved cellulose into fiber. This is the same process used for any viscose rayon and is chemically intensive, with significant solvent residues and worker-exposure concerns. The bamboo origin doesn't change the chemistry. The vast majority of "bamboo fabric" on the market is bamboo viscose.

Bamboo linen is mechanically processed: the bamboo stalk is crushed, soaked in enzymes to break down the woody material, and the remaining fibers are combed and spun like flax linen. It's a much cleaner process, similar to how linen and hemp are made. It produces a coarser, more linen-like fabric that doesn't drape softly like bamboo viscose. It's also rare. If a bamboo product feels soft and silky, it's almost certainly bamboo viscose. If it feels like rougher linen, it's possibly bamboo linen, but verify with the brand.

Are plant-based polymers healthier than petroleum-derived fabrics? Is bioplastic fabric safer than polyester?

They are imperfect, but yes. Bioplastics can be processed with the same chemicals as regular plastics, leaving behind impurities like antimony on the final product. Flame retardants and plasticizers can be added to the final product, too, just like regular plastic fabrics. And, bioplastic is still new enough that there are still very few studies on its safety. On the other hand, using plants means less petroleum refining, which is a major cancer risk to workers in refineries.

What are petroleum-derived polymer fabrics? What are synthetic fabrics?

Synthetic "fabrics," come from petroleum, a fossil fuel. The petroleum is refined and then reacted with chemicals to make long chains of plastic that can be woven into fabrics, or made into non-woven plastic sheets. There are a few main types that show up in home furnishings: polyester (PET), polypropylene, and PVC.

What is polypropylene fabric?

Polypropylene fabric is made by starting with rigid polypropylene, a hard plastic like what a patio chair is made of, for example. The basic production of the fiber version of polypropylene involves forming a chain of propylene molecules, filtering it, then reducing it to a powdered resin. At this point, various additives, particularly UV stabilizer chemicals, are added to the resin to prevent light and heat degradation. Antioxidants and colorants are also commonly incorporated during fiber production to improve weather resistance, thermal stability, and dyeability. If the final product needs to be fire resistant, this is the point at which flame retardants are mixed in, too. Other additives that are proprietary may be incorporated as well.

The mixture is melted down and spun into fibers. The fibers are woven into a sheet of “fabric.”

In the home, polypropylene fabric is used for upholstery and carpeting most often. It is completely unable to absorb water and repels oil, making it useful as a waterproof fabric that doesn’t require PFAS. It also resists bleach, allowing colored polypropylene fabrics to be cleaned with bleach without color changes.

Is polypropylene safe? Is polypropylene fabric toxic?

The safety of polypropylene depends significantly on the additives present in the final product, whether or not you will be exposed to them, and in what amounts. If the fabric is embedded inside of mattress springs, and has OEKO TEX certification, your exposure risk is very low. But, if it’s used as the upholstery on your couch, without any health-forward certifications, you will have a higher exposure to polypropylene and any additives that leach from it.

Research on polypropylene medical masks found a surprising number of additives present: inner layers had antimicrobials and flavorings, while middle and outer layers contained antioxidants, plasticizers, and lubricants. Similarly, A 2020 study analyzing polypropylene make-up found common additives including antioxidants, UV stabilizers and absorbers, thermal stabilizers, lubricants, plasticizers, and flame retardants, and some of these additives or their degradation products may present health safety concerns. These studies are interesting, though of course, don’t apply directly to furniture upholstery.

While polypropylene itself is generally considered a relatively stable plastic, the lack of transparency in polymer formulations makes it difficult to assess the risk associated with these materials, and more disclosure is needed to properly evaluate safety. The environmental impact is also concerning—polypropylene is petroleum-derived, toxic during production, and will not biodegrade for hundreds of years, contributing to microplastic waste.

For safer polypropylene textiles, look for OEKO-TEX or MADE SAFE certification, which test for harmful additives in finished products. You can also look for food-grade polypropylene, which is obviously not specific to home products but does mean that it is FDA-approved to not leach harmful chemicals above certain limits when exposed to high heat, acidity, or microwaving. It’s very hard to interpret these limits, so take this with a grain of salt and again, look for OEKO TEX certification which will mean the product has been tested specifically for textile contact for human health.

What is olefin fabric? Is olefin the same as polypropylene?

Olefin is a word for a large class of synthetic fibers called polyolefins, which includes both polypropylene and polyethylene as the dominant commercial types.

In the fabric and upholstery industry, the term polypropylene is used more often than olefin.

Chemicals Used in Fabric Processing

How is fabric processed? What chemicals are used in fabric manufacturing?

This comprehensive guide about textile production is where I sourced information to create this summary about the chemicals used in fabric processing below:

➜ Fiber creation: If grown conventionally, pesticides and fertilizers are used to grow the plant. Both organically grown and regular fibers can have acids, scouring chemicals, and other processing agents used to wash them. If synthetic, petroleum and catalysts are used.

➜ Fabric weaving: Spinning oils, lubricants, and fiber-strengthening chemicals are added to turn the fibers into sheets of fabric.

➜ Cleansing: Detergents, solvents, bleaches, acids, and enzymes are used to remove chemicals from previous steps, make the fabrics lighter, or prepare them to accept dyes in the next step.

➜ Dyeing: Azo dyes, binders, plasticizers, PVC, and other polymers (plastics) are used in this step to make the dyes stick to the surface of the fabric.

➜ Finishing: Chemical treatments are added to make the fabric perform a certain way. Formaldehyde resins offer wrinkle-resistance, other resins work for anti-pilling, PFAS for stain-resistance, polyglycols for anti-pilling, acrylates or PVC with plasticizers for protective coatings, antimicrobials, and flame retardants for fire resistance.

Not every chemical is bad, and this isn't intended to be scary. The purpose is to illuminate how intensive the process of fabric making is and enhance respect for the difficult job that OEKO-TEX, GOTS, and other certifications cover.

Why is there BPA in fabric? Is BPA in polyester?

Yes, some fabrics, including polyester, have BPA in them. This is because BPA not only makes polyester more flexible, but it's also useful in making fabric colorfast—meaning it holds onto its dye and looks brighter and more colorful for longer. You might remember the 2023 news about high levels of BPA is in socks, sports bras, and other synthetic clothing. The upholstery industry is no different.

BPA does get into our bodies mostly by ingesting it, but it's also absorbed through the skin. The amount you absorb through skin is lower than what you ingest orally, but when it travels through your skin, it’s absorbed to your systemic circulation (bloodstream) instead of being processed first by your GI and liver where it is inactivated. A human study found that of the BPA that does enter the bloodstream after dermal exposure, about 16 times more remains in the free, unconjugated form compared to oral exposure (8.95% vs 0.56% of total serum BPA), because dermal absorption bypasses first-pass liver metabolism. Dermal absorption is slow and inefficient overall, but the fraction that gets through reaches circulation in its biologically active form.

Free BPA is the biologically active form, the one that interacts with estrogen receptors. BPA is a well-characterized endocrine disruptor with the strongest evidence in reproductive and developmental endpoints.

Are flame retardants in fabric dangerous? Why are flame retardants in fabric bad?

Flame retardants are a huge group of chemicals. The earliest versions were phased out when it was discovered that they were harmful to human health. The substitutions have also had issues, and while I won’t go into every single type and class of flame retardant used in the past, there is a long list of health concerns associated with many of them including cancer, allergies, asthma, fetal development issues, and neurodevelopmental defects. That’s still important because the production of PBDEs, one of the major offending classes, didn’t start being phased out until 2004. Many people still have items from 2004 and PBDEs accumulate in bodies and in the environment for years.

The flame retardants most commonly added to fabric today are organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs) and the newer brominated flame retardants (BFRs). They’re in upholstery and textiles like drapes and curtains and because they’re not a part of the fiber, they fall out into household dust over time, an important route of exposure for us. Early research suggests OPFRs may affect bone and brain health, and BFRs continue to show endocrine-disrupting effects in studies, though the evidence is less developed than it is for the older classes they replaced. That doesn’t mean they’re off the hook— as evidence develops, they could be just as bad as their predecessors. It’s still too early to tell, but considering the past, and that we are still getting the full picture of the consequences of the older classes, I am quite cautious about chemical flame retardants as a whole.

Why is there formaldehyde in fabric? Is formaldehyde in wrinkle-free fabric?

Formaldehyde coatings are added to make fabrics "wrinkle-free" or "wrinkle-resistant." Formaldehyde is a known carcinogen, and can also cause rash. Companies are not required to disclose upfront whether their product contains formaldehyde, and you need to specifically ask. Because curtains and bedding are often treated with formaldehyde resins for wrinkle-resistance, choosing certified options protects your indoor air quality. Shop formaldehyde-free curtains and GOTS-certified bedding."

Why are there PFAS in fabric? What fabrics contain PFAS?

PFAS chemicals are added to textiles to make them water or stain- resistant.

But, PFAS are linked with lowered immune function, metabolic issues, reduced fertility, and a host of other health problems. They are also "forever chemicals," meaning they do not break down in the environment. Companies are not required to disclose whether their product contains PFAS.

Water-resistant and stain-resistant fabrics are the most likely to contain PFAS, unless specifically certified PFAS-free. This is especially common in upholstery, where performance fabrics are routinely treated with PFAS to resist spills and stains. PFAS is the umbrella term for thousands of types of these chemicals, so notice if a company only says that they are “PTFE and PFOA” free— that’s often a red flag that they’re using other classes of PFAS.

What are azo dyes?

Azo dyes are still the most common type of dye used in fabric manufacturing— 60-70% of textiles colorants are azo dyes! They’re inexpensive, produce consistent colors, are easy to work with, so despite the fact that many are known to cause health issues, and many are suspected to, we continue to use them, especially in countries outside of the EU. There are hundreds of types of azo dyes, and the health risks are different for each type.

Why are azo dyes bad?

Azo dyes themselves are not as bad as what happens to them as they break down. Bacteria in sweat can break azo dyes down into compounds called aromatic amines, some of which are carcinogenic, some of which cause skin sensitization, and most of which we don’t have complete toxicity data on, or the health evidence is still mixed for.

Can azo dyes cause cancer?

Concerns about azo dye carcinogenicity started back in the 1930s, when certain azo derivatives were found in animal studies to cause liver and bladder tumors. Germany banned certain azo dyes in consumer goods in 1994, and the EU now bans azo dyes that release any of 22 known carcinogenic aromatic amines from clothing textiles. The US has no equivalent regulation.

Does OEKO TEX ban azo dyes?

Azo dyes are especially useful for synthetic fabrics like polyester, nylon, and acrylic, and since OEKO TEX applies to synthetic fabrics, it’s a good question. The answer is, it is not a full ban, but OEKO TEX restricts the same 22 carcinogenic aromatic amines that the EU does, and also restricts the allergenic dyes that are associated with allergic contact dermatitis. It does not restrict all 800+ azo dyes, but is still a higher standard than US regulations and a step toward safety.

Does washing fabric remove chemicals?

No, not completely. This research study from 2015 assessed the textile processing chemicals left on 60 different clothing garments before and after washing.

Before washing, thousands of chemical compounds were found using gas and high-performance liquid chromatography (laboratory methods of separating and identifying specific chemicals.) They found more chemicals in polyester and other synthetic garments compared to clothing made with cotton and other natural materials.

Concentrations of the chemicals did decrease after washing, but it varied significantly by chemical and fabric type. Some of the chemicals used in fabric processing stay on the fabric longer than you’d like. Some is washed away, and some comes into contact with your skin.

It’s absolutely a good idea to wash fabric before use— it does remove some of the issues, though not all of them. But, whenever possible, this is why it's important to choose fabric that is grown and processed organically, or at least has declared the ingredients used in its creation.

If you've purchased a water-resistant coat, which are made waterproof by treatment with PFAS, it will stay waterproof for a few washes before you start to notice that it's less effective. The same concept goes for dyes; over time, dyes are released and your clothes become less vibrant. Many textile dyes, of course, have health effects, as well.

How can I remove PFAS from clothing? Does washing remove PFAS from fabric?

It’s very hard. PFAS are known as forever chemicals because they are so resistant to breaking down, and even if they do, they just turn into smaller versions— shorter chain PFAS instead of longer chain PFAS. Research on PFAS fabrics (also labeled as DWR-treated fabrics) shows that while some PFAS do wash out into laundry wastewater (which is its own environmental concern), washing doesn't meaningfully reduce your exposure — and in some cases, aging and washing actually increase the concentration of certain PFAS breakdown products detectable in the fabric. PFAS are designed to survive dozens of industrial-grade washes. A single home laundry cycle barely makes a dent on the PFAS that remain available for skin contact.

Are there laundry detergents that remove PFAS from fabric?

No, none exist yet. In the meantime, choose PFAS-free laundry detergents and reduce the number of PFAS-containing items you purchase.

Does washing remove formaldehyde from fabric?

If you've ever gotten a rash after wearing a new wrinkle-free shirt, it may have been due to formaldehyde finish that’s added to make the shirt wrinkle free.

The bad news is, wrinkle-free shirts don’t stay wrinkle free, but the good news is your health benefits. Washing does remove formaldehyde from fabric. Multiple sources estimate that a single wash removes around 60% of formaldehyde from new fabric. This study found that all of it is washed away, which is great news.

Some residual formaldehyde may remain after one wash, particularly in heavily treated wrinkle-resistant fabrics, so you may benefit from washing more than once.

New Fabric Technologies and Safety Concerns

What is C0 DWR? What does C0 DWR mean on fabric?

C0 DWR stands for Durable Water Repellent made with zero fluorinated carbon. It's a chemical finish applied to textiles to make them stain-resistant and water-resistant without using PFAS. Unlike C6 and C8 DWR finishes that contain PFAS (fluorinated chemicals linked to serious health problems), C0 formulations are PFAS-free alternatives.

C0 DWR is used on performance fabrics including upholstery, outdoor textiles, and water-resistant home goods.

What is C0 DWR made of? What chemicals are in PFAS-free water repellent fabric?

The exact ingredients remain undisclosed by most fabric manufacturers—even the companies using these textiles often don't have access to the complete formula.

Since research has revealed the harmful effects of PFAS, fabric manufacturers have been developing multiple PFAS-free formulations for water and stain resistance. These alternatives are generally described as plant-based or seed-based and typically carry OEKO-TEX certification, but specific ingredient lists are rarely published. Crypton Home has a Health Product Declaration for their PFAS-free performance fabric, which represents progress toward transparency, though most ingredients in their stain-repellent treatment remain proprietary.

This lack of transparency exists because of trade secrets and competitive pressures in developing new technologies—particularly now, when multiple companies are racing to create the best PFAS alternative. However, the secrecy has raised concerns about "regrettable substitutions"—the possibility that in 20 years we may discover these PFAS-free options carry unforeseen health risks of their own.

Is plant-based stain repellent safe? Are PFAS-free water repellent fabrics non-toxic?

Possibly! As explained above, the exact ingredients in these formulations remain proprietary. The positive signs include: they're plant-based, PFAS-free, and typically OEKO-TEX certified, which tests for over 1,000 harmful substances in finished textiles.

If you're still concerned about C0 DWR or other PFAS-free water-repellent treatments, you can minimize direct skin contact by using protective covers on furniture, or choose untreated natural fabrics like organic cotton, linen, or wool without any water-resistant finishes.

Is antimicrobial fabric toxic? Are antibacterial towels safe?

Antimicrobial treatments, including triclosan and quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs, or “quats”) are added to fabrics to prevent odor and bacterial growth, but the evidence we have so far is that they’re neither effective nor proven safe. Ironically, they are contributing to antibiotic resistance, and making bacteria more of a problem for people than it already is.

  • On their effectiveness: the FDA reviewed the most widely used chemical antimicrobial, triclosan, and found it was no more effective than regular soap and water at preventing infection, then banned it from consumer wash-off products in 2016. But, it remains in textiles like antimicrobial towels, upholstery, curtains, sheets, carpets, and rugs.

  • On triclosan safety: triclosan is a documented endocrine disruptor in animals — multiple studies have found it interferes with their thyroid hormones and reproductive hormones. It’s been detected in human urine, blood, and breast milk across all age groups, though evidence about its endocrine disrupting effects in humans is still mixed and under investigation. There is also documented concern about antibiotic resistance: triclosan exposure can contribute to antibiotic resistance, meaning bacteria that adapt to triclosan also become harder to treat with certain antibiotics.

  • On QAC safety: Quaternary ammonium compounds are now widely used in antimicrobial fabrics as a triclosan alternative, and carry their own concerns including dermal and respiratory effects, developmental and reproductive toxicity, disruption of lipid homeostasis, mitochondrial impairment, and growing evidence of antibiotic cross-resistance by the same mechanism as triclosan.

The antibiotic resistance concern applies across antimicrobial fabric treatments generally, not just these two. Widespread low-level exposure to antimicrobials in everyday products creates bacterial resistance, which then threatens the effectiveness of antibiotics when they’re needed in medical settings.

In short, antimicrobial fabric doesn't protect you from pathogens any more than washing regularly does, but it does add health risks. It’s still allowed because it’s so hard to prove that this antimicrobial towel caused this person’s cancer, for example — very similar to the reasons cigarettes were so hard to regulate.

Is nanosilver fabric safe? Is silver-infused fabric toxic? Is graphene fabric safe?

Nanosilver and graphene are both nanochemicals, and they’re sometimes added to fabrics for antimicrobial and odor-resistance. The problem is, nanochemicals are so small, they can cross through our cell walls and even through our blood-brain barrier. The technology as a whole is very new, and we are just beginning to learn how it might affect us.

Studies show that nanosilver does leach from fabric during wear, especially when you sweat, and does reach skin. A 2024 study found that nanosilver releases from fabric during wear, especially when you sweat, and that the safety threshold for nanosilver skin exposure is low enough that exercising in nanosilver-treated clothing could push you past it.

Most of the other research comes from from animal and lab studies, which show concerning effects at higher doses, but we just don't yet have enough good studies on humans, especially for touching textiles. The EU has already restricted nanosilver and other nanomaterials based on what we know so far. Widespread use of silver as an antimicrobial in consumer products may contribute to microbial resistance, which matters for medical applications of silver.

The antimicrobial benefit in fabrics is also questionable. Textile researchers have pointed out that lab conditions for testing antimicrobial fabrics don't reflect real-world wear, and evidence that nanosilver-treated clothing meaningfully reduces odor or bacterial exposure compared to regular washing is limited.

Until we have better human safety data, I'd avoid it, especially in items with prolonged or frequent skin contact like bedding or hand towels.

FYI: How and why I use the words non-toxic, chemical-free, toxin, and toxic

I use the words non-toxic, chemical, toxin and toxic, even though there is no agreed-upon definition of the term non-toxic, and that everything, even water, is made of chemicals, so nothing is truly chemical-free. Likewise, toxin refers to a natural substance like a plant poison or venom, whereas toxicant is a more accurate term for the chemicals in products that have a negative health impact. I recognize that something that is toxic does not automatically make it a health risk.

I choose to use these scientifically inaccurate words anyway purely for practical purposes, for now. This is because these words are currently the most culturally agreed-upon, descriptive, and accessible terms that allow people to find the information they’re looking for.

In short, “non-toxic” is shorthand for a complicated problem. I’ll update my terminology if this changes!

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