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How I Rate Fabrics
This guide covers how I rate fabrics for their impact on your health. It explains what all the little symbols mean under items containing fabric in the Healthy Design Shop.
You can use it as a guide when searching for healthier fabric anywhere— the same information applies wherever you go.
Read more about why I rate fabric and materials here.
I take into account fabric’s potential impact on your health in two separate ways. First, the starting material, and second, for the way it was processed. This two-part consideration captures a more complete picture: for example, a polyester starting material may be processed with minimal additives, and the finished product may meet OEKO-TEX standards. On the other hand, organic cotton may be used as a starting material, but finished with a formaldehyde coating to make it wrinkle-resistant.
To stay organized and unbiased, I use the Standard Rating Scale to rate fabric from healthiest to least healthy. Here’s a quick reminder about what each level on the scale means:
Healthiest option available.
Healthy, but doesn’t meet the strict standards of the blue dot.
Minimal health risk. Verified to be healthier than its standard counterpart.
Caution is warranted.
Well-known harmful effect on health and should be avoided whenever possible.
Here are the fabric-specific requirements for meeting each level on the scale. Read on below for more details about terminology and specific examples.
Click on bolded statements to see links to research.
Third Party Certifications
What are 3rd party certifications? Why do third party certifications matter?
Third-party certification means that an independent group that didn’t make the product, has reviewed, tested, and verified the claims that the company making the product has made. For fabrics, a third party may test the product for all ingredients used throughout the entire process (like GOTS or MADE SAFE), or just for dangerous ones in the finished product (like OEKO TEX).
Third party certifications protect you from healthwashing. Just like greenwashing makes products appear better for the Earth than they really are, some companies intentionally make their products seem healthier for people than they really are, too.
What does GOTS certified mean?
GOTS is short for the Global Organic Textile Standard.
It is the gold standard 3rd party certification for organic fabrics made from natural fibers like wool, cotton, linen, and others.
Fabric with the GOTS-certified organic label means that at least 95% of the starting fibers are certified organic, and ensures that the fabric remains healthy throughout the entire manufacturing process. This means the dyes and other chemicals used are safer for human and ecological health than standard fabric processing methods. No harmful finishes may be added to the final product.
What is MADE SAFE certified?
MADE SAFE certification cares about the entire production process, similar to GOTS, and has 6,500 chemicals on their banned/restricted list.
MADE SAFE certification requires manufacturing transparency, as well as disclosure of each substance and process involved in the formulation of the product. This means not just the starting ingredients are required to be healthy, but all ingredients used in textile processing, which is very chemical-intensive.
What is OEKO TEX?
OEKO TEX certification applies to the finished product only, and is for both natural and synthetic textiles. Organic fibers, as well as man-made fabrics like polyester can both qualify, depending on what chemicals, and how much of them, are left in the final product. It does allow for some harmful chemicals, but in much lower quantities than are used in standard textile processing. You can see their limits, which are updated annually, here.
What is the difference between GOTS vs OEKO TEX?
GOTS organic is a higher standard of health than OEKO TEX, because it requires that organic and safe ingredients are used throughout the entire process, from growing the fiber to dying it, to finishing and selling it.
A good example comes from Two Sisters Ecotextiles: “Think of making applesauce. If you start with organic apples, but add red dye #2, stabilizers, preservatives, emulsifiers, etc., you do not get organic applesauce. The same is true with fabric.“
OEKO-TEX certification applies to the finished product only, and applies to both natural and synthetic textiles. Organic fibers, as well as man-made fabrics like polyester can both qualify, depending on what chemicals, and how much of them, are left in the final product. It does allow for some harmful chemicals, but in much lower quantities than are used in standard textile processing. You can see their limits, which are updated annually, here.
What is the difference between MADE SAFE vs OEKO TEX?
MADE SAFE certification cares about the entire production process, like GOTS, and has 6,500 chemicals on their banned/restricted list. It is a higher standard than OEKO TEX.
Is USDA Organic a useful certification for fabric?
No. USDA Organic applies to how the crop is grown, but not to what happens afterward. USDA organic cotton can easily have chemicals added to it during the manufacturing process. This certification applies better to food than to textiles.
Starting Materials
What are plant-based polymers?
Also known as bioplastics, plant-based polymers are essentially plastic threads made from vegetables. Small molecules from starchy foods, like corn, sugarcane, and potatoes are extracted, then reacted in a factory with other chemicals to make polymers— the long chains of plastic that can be woven into fabrics like polyester or polypropylene.
You might have seen the term PLA (polylactic acid) being marketed as a filling in some blankets, for example. PLA is one of the most popular bioplastics available currently.
What is viscose?
Viscose is an example of a plant-based polymer fabric. It is made from cellulose that comes from wood pulp. The cellulose is extracted and is heavily processed with various chemicals, and can be energy and water -intensive. It’s certainly better for people and the earth than a petroleum-based fabric, but still isn’t as healthy as a truly natural fabric.
What is rayon?
Rayon is an example of a plant-based polymer fabric. It is very similar to viscose, but instead of the cellulose starting material coming from wood pulp, rayon is made from cellulose that comes from other plants— from eucalyptus, bamboo, soy, or cotton. The cellulose is extracted and is heavily processed with various chemicals, and can be energy and water -intensive. It’s certainly better for people and the earth than a petroleum-based fabric, but still isn’t as healthy as a truly natural fabric.
Are plant-based polymers healthier than petroleum-derived ones?
They are imperfect, but yes. Bioplastics can be processed with the same chemicals as regular plastics, leaving behind impurities like antimony on the final product. Flame retardants and plasticizers can be added to the final product, too, just like regular plastic fabrics. And, bioplastic is still new enough that there are still very few studies on its safety. On the other hand, using potatoes means less petroleum refining, which is a major cancer risk to all who live nearby and work in refineries.
What are petroleum-derived polymers?
Synthetic, or man-made “fabrics”, come from petroleum, a fossil fuel. The petroleum is refined and then reacted with chemicals to make long chains of plastic that can be woven into fabrics. There are a few main types that show up in home furnishings: polyester, polypropylene, and PVC.
Is polyester safe?
Polyester is the best-known synthetic textile, and is actually the same thing as PET (polyethylene terephthalate), what plastic bottles are made of. This is why you see clothing, sheets, and other fabrics advertised as being made from recycled plastic water bottles. Polyester itself is relatively stable once it’s made, meaning it doesn’t make its way into your body easily.
Polyester’s health issues come from the chemicals that tag along with it. Antimony is used in the chemical reaction to make polyester, and it remains on the polyester in the final product. Antimony is a metallic element that is associated with lung irritation, and is possibly carcinogenic.
BPA, phthalates, and other additives are very commonly mixed with polyester to make the fabric softer, more durable, flexible, and colorfast. Phthalates are absorbed directly through the skin and is linked to developmental and reproductive harm, cancer, metabolic disorders, diabetes and more, with worse health effects in infants and toddlers.
A polyester tested to have no impurities left on it can be potentially harmless to the user. However, the process of making polyester poses cancer risks to the factory workers, and virgin polyester requires fossil fuel extraction and petroleum refining, posing long-term health risks to the earth and everyone on it. It’s still a better choice for fillings than polyurethane foam, and a better choice for wallpaper than PVC, and if you use it, choose polyester with OEKO TEX or MADE SAFE certification ensuring it is safer.
Is polypropylene safe?
Polypropylene is made in a similar fashion to polyester, described above. Compared to polyester, it’s more rigid, can’t absorb any water, and is resistant to strong acids and bases. This makes it an attractive choice for upholstery, and is often advertised as a PFAS-free water-resistant fabric, that you can clean with bleach.
Because it’s naturally more rigid, plasticizers like phthalates, along with stabilizers and fillers, must be added to polypropylene to make it a flexible and fabric-like. While polypropylene itself is generally considered a relatively safe plastic for humans to touch, the additives are not safe.
Why is PVC so bad?
Vinyl fabrics, or PVC-coated fabrics are more common in outdoor furniture, for their extreme water resistance. PVC is a priority chemical to avoid, as agreed upon by international groups because of its toxicity during its entire lifecycle— the production, use, and degradation stages. The US Green Building Council declares that PVC is “consistently among the worst materials for human health impacts.”
Vinyl chloride, the molecule used to make PVC, is an established carcinogen that causes lung, brain, liver, and rare cancers such as hepatic angiosarcoma. This is why the vinyl chloride spill in Ohio in 2023 was such cause for concern.
Surprisingly, lead is still commonly added to PVC to make it more flexible. Phthalates are also added, as well as other chemicals to alter its rigidity, transparency, or softness. These are not chemically bound within the PVC structure, and easily leach out for absorption into the body.
Finally, when people throw away PVC products into their trash, it is burned in municipal waste incinerators, releasing dioxins into the air. Dioxins are one of the most hazardous chemicals for people and the planet.
What is the difference between PEVA vs. PVC?
PEVA (polyethylene vinyl acetate) is a polymer-based fabric that is naturally flexible. Unlike PVC, it doesn’t require the addition of phthalates to make it soft and bendable. It also doesn’t contain chlorine like PVC does, which is one of the main health issues PVC poses.
What is PEVA?
PEVA (polyethylene vinyl acetate), also known as EVA (ethylene vinyl acetate), is a polymer-based fabric. That means it comes from petroleum, and is made in a factory. It is very similar to polyester in some ways — it is a long, repeating chain of polymer molecules that make a soft, flexible fabric.
Is PEVA safe?
The internet is generally divided into two camps about PEVA — either it’s totally safe vs. it’s totally toxic. There’s typically not a lot of nuance when I see this argument. I shed some light on both sides here.
For those that say that PEVA is totally safe, they are generally referring to the fact that as of 2014, PEVA was not found to be cancerous or have other effects on human health by various agencies including the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), OSHA, or National Toxicology Program (NTP).
Read more about why some think it’s toxic below, and what I think.
Is PEVA toxic?
For those that say that PEVA is toxic, they are usually referring to one study done in 2014 by Tingzhu Teresa Meng.
What most people don’t notice is that if you click on the “Author Information” section, Tingzhu Teresa Meng was a highschool student at the North Carolina School of Science and Mathematics.
The study was done on Lumbriculus variegatus, a worm. Squares of a PEVA shower curtain were added to a water bath and heated to 150 degrees Fahrenheit. The VOCs emitted from it were captured, and the worms were exposed to it. This was compared to worms exposed to regular water, and worms exposed to VOCs from PVC. The PEVA-exposed worms showed stress reactions higher than those in the water group, and lower than those in the PVC group.
To my knowledge, no other studies on PEVA toxicity have been done. None have been done in humans at temperatures and time lengths for normal bathroom exposure to PEVA curtains.
Read what I think overall, below.
What I think about PEVA
Based on the information from the two sides of the “PEVA is safe” and the “PEVA is toxic” arguments (read above), I think PEVA falls somewhere in the middle.
It is certainly less toxic than PVC, because it doesn’t require phthalates to make it a soft and flexible fabric, and it doesn’t require chlorine in its production.
It is probably not as toxic as the worms in the above-referenced study experienced, since our bathrooms are never drawing VOCs out of it at 150 degrees Fahrenheit.
It is probably also not as safe as a natural fiber, and certainly less eco-friendly. I think it deserves more study to ensure that it is truly safe, not just meeting the thresholds of “non-carcinogenic.” I would like to see more, and updated information on it.
So, I do not recommend cuddling with it or heating it up and breathing in its VOCs. However, I do see it as a safer version of PVC for waterproofing applications such as for shower curtains or other situations when protecting from mold or water damage.
Processing
How is fabric processed? What harmful chemicals are added to fabric?
Read this comprehensive guide about textile production. It is where I sourced information to create this summary about the chemicals used in fabric processing below:
➜ Fiber creation: if grown conventionally, pesticides and fertilizers are used to grow the plant. Both organically grown and regular fibers can have acids, scouring chemicals, and other processing agents used to wash them. If synthetic, petroleum and catalysts are used.
➜ Fabric weaving: spinning oils, lubricants, and fiber-strengthening chemicals are aded to turn the fibers into sheets of fabric.
➜ Cleansing: detergents, solvents, bleaches, acids, and enzymes are used to remove chemicals from previous steps, make the fabrics lighter, or prepare them to accept dyes in the next step.
➜ Dyeing: pigments, binders, plasticizers, PVC, and other polymers (plastics) are used in this step, to make the dyes stick to the surface of the fabric.
➜ Finishing: chemical treatments are added to make the fabric perform a certain way. Formaldehyde resins offer wrinkle-resistance, other resins work for anti-pilling, PFAS for stain-resistance, polyglycols for anti-pilling, acrylates or PVC with plasticizers for protective coatings, and flame retardants for fire resistance.
Can fabric have BPA in it?
Yes! BPA not only makes polyester more flexible, but it’s also useful in making fabric colorfast. People have been surprised by the recent news that BPA is in socks, sports bras, and other synthetic clothing. The upholstery industry is no different. BPA does get into our bodies by drinking it, but it’s also absorbed through the skin, and causes reproductive harm.
Why are Flame Retardants in fabric bad?
Flame Retardants are well-known endocrine disrupting chemicals, and are linked with immune system dysfunction and neurodevelopmental issues like ADHD. They do not meaningfully reduce flammability, but are still routinely added to fabrics, especially drapes and curtains. Companies are not required to disclose whether their product contains Flame Retardants.
When is formaldehyde added to fabric?
Formaldehyde coatings are added to make fabrics “wrinkle-free” or “wrinkle-resistant.” Formaldehyde is a known carcinogen, and can also cause rash or burning of the eyes. Companies are not required to disclose whether their product contains formaldehyde.
Why are PFAS added to fabric?
PFAS chemicals are added textiles to make them “water-resistant” or “stain-resistant.” PFAS are linked with lowered immune function, metabolic issues, reduced fertility, and a host of other health problems. They are also “forever chemicals,” meaning they do not break down in the environment. Companies are not required to disclose whether their product contains PFAS.
Are antimicrobial fabrics safe?
Antimicrobials are added to fabrics to make them seem healthier and resistant to germs. But, they do not meaningfully reduce exposure to pathogens any more than regular soap and water. Worse, they disrupt hormone function, are associated with developmental and reproductive effects, allergen sensitivity, and antibiotic resistance.
Is nanosilver fabric safe? Is graphene fabric safe?
These are both nanochemicals sometimes added to fabrics. The problem is, nanochemicals are so small, they can cross through our cell walls and even through our blood-brain barrier. The technology as a whole is very new, so caution is warranted. Nanosilver is known to be toxic to organs, and graphene is likely toxic to the lungs.
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